The development of the Japanese legal system for public participation in land use and environmental matters
Highlights
bull;One characteristic of the Japanese participation system is its voluntary-based approach.
bull;There have been remarkable legal reforms to increase public participation since 1990s.
bull;Despite various good practices, there are still some criticisms of the effectiveness of public participation.
bull;One of the weak points of the Japanese system is the lack of a rights-based approach as introduced by the Aarhus Convention.
bull;The rights-based approach and voluntary-based approach should be appropriately combined.
Abstract
This paper introduces the development of the Japanese legal system for public participation in land use and environmental matters. The promotion of public participation has been a common topic in Japan and in other countries, especially after the Rio Summit in 1992. However, the legal framework and its implementation are differentiated. While the guarantee of the right to participate in decision-making is a basic element in the European system, the Japanese systems primary characteristic has been that it is a voluntary-based approach without the guarantee of such a right. Traditionally, there have been many good practices for effective voluntary-based approaches in this field such as recycling and energy saving. Since 1990s, various original legal measures for public participation and collaboration have also been introduced in Japanese land use and environmental laws, which in many cases aim at collecting environmental information for the sake of making better decisions or promoting voluntary activities. However, such a system easily becomes dysfunctional, especially in conflict cases such as infrastructure improvement, because of the intense conflicts of interest. In order to settle such conflicts, a rights-based approach is indispensable for transparent and fair decision-making. The appropriate participation/collaboration models for Japanese society should simultaneously combine meeting global standards, the three pillars of the Aarhus Convention, as well as the preservation of the historical and original achievements that have arisen as a result of the leading environmental cases in Japan.
Keywords
Law Japan Public participation Aarhus convention Voluntary-based approach
Introduction
Public participation is essential to the promotion of sustainable development. As Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration of 1992 states, environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. Public participation contributes to protect the right to live in a healthy environment as a basic human right. It is also an important instrument of “environmental democracy” (Stec, 2011). Due to the limited resources of public administration, public participation is indispensable for better policy decision-making and for effective implementation of environmental law. In addition, public participation from the earliest stage promotes public acceptance for environmental policy and leads to a reduction of conflicts later.
In order to accelerate action in terms of implementing Principle 10, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention) was adopted in 1998 in the Danish city of Aarhus. It requires Parties to guarantee the procedural rights of access to information, public participation in decision-making, and access to justice. Effective public participation depends on full, accurate, and up-to-date information. Access to justice ensures that participation occurs in reality and not just on paper (UNECE, 2014). Therefore, it is important to guarantee these three access rights in an integrated way.
Although there are only 47 current Parties to the Aarhus Convention from the UNECE region, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) adopted the Guidelines for the Development of National Legislation on Access to Information, Public Participation, and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Bali Guidelines) on February 26, 2010. The importance of Principle 10 was also reaffirmed in Articles 43 and 44 of the Rio 20 outcome document entitled “The Future We Want.” There could be many approaches toward Principle 10s implementation. Now, Latin American and Caribbean countries have agreed to a regional instrument for more effective implementation. In Asian countries, there have also been various legal reforms to strengthen the participation right after the Rio Summit.
Japan is not a Party of the Aarhus Convention. However, there have been many developments on public participation at the national as well as the local level in the last 20 years. In comparison with other countries, in general terms, public participation in Japan has been traditionally embodied in strong local initiatives and effective voluntary activities materialized in cooperation with private and governmental actors. These are the primary characteristics of Japanese environmental policy (Imura, 2005a, Schreurs, 2002, Tsutsumi, 2002, 日本土地利用和环境事务公众参与法律制度的发展
bull;尽管有各种良好做法,但仍有人批评公众参与的有效性。
本文介绍了日本公众参与土地利用和环境事务法律制度的发展。促进公众参与一直是日本和其他国家的共同话题,特别是1992年里约首脑会议之后。但是,法律框架及其实施是有区别的。虽然参与决策权的保障是欧洲体系的一个基本要素,但日本体系的主要特点是,它是一种基于自愿的方法,没有这种权利的保障。传统上,在这一领域有许多有效的基于自愿的做法,例如回收和节能。20世纪90年代以来,日本的土地利用法和环境法中还引入了各种原始的公众参与和合作法律措施,这些措施在许多情况下旨在收集环境信息,以便作出更好的决定或促进自愿活动。然而,由于利益冲突的加剧,这类系统很容易出现功能失调,特别是在基础设施改善等冲突情况下。为了解决这些冲突,基于权利的办法对于透明和公平的决策是必不可少的。日本社会的适当参与/合作模式应同时结合符合全球标准、《奥胡斯公约》的三大支柱,以及保护因日本主要环境案例而产生的历史和原始成就。
法律 日本 公众参与 奥胡斯公约 自愿为基础的方法
简介
从这个意义上说,为了促进公众参与环境事务,有必要在新的合作视角而不是个人努力的基础上进行体制改革。
二战后,特别是1955年至1970年,日本经济进入了高速增长期,主要依靠钢铁、石油和化学工业的发展。然而,也造成了几起严重的污染事件,给人类健康造成了损害,夺去了人们的生命。
年 |
里约地球首脑会议后公众参与制度的发展 |
1993 |
日本全球环境基金成立。制定了《环境基本法》。制定《行政程序法》是为了确保政府的公平和透明。 |
1994 |
建立了第一个基本环境规划。 |
1996 |
设立环境伙伴关系办公室是为了促进行政部门、非营利组织和私营公司之间的伙伴关系活动。 |
1997 |
制定了《环境影响评价法》。修订了《河流法》。居民的公开听证被纳入河道治理规划程序。 |
1998 |
制定了《促进特定非营利活动法》(简称《非营利组织法》):非政府组织更容易获得非营利活动的法人资格。 |
1999 |
制定了《行政机关信息公开法》。内阁决定提出公开评论的方案。颁布了权力下放的法律修正案。颁布了《污染物排放和转移登记法》:公民可以获得工厂内化学品的信息。 |
2002 |
修改了《自然公园法》:地方非营利组织可以参与自然公园管理。制定了促进自然恢复的法律。修改了《城市规划法》,引入了城市规划建议制度。 |
2003 |
制定了《通过环境教育促进环境保护活动法》,以支持非营利组织的环境保护活动。 |
2004 |
修改《行政诉讼法》:扩大立案范围。并颁布了《景观法》。 |
2005 |
修订《行政程序法》:出台《行政法规公开征求意见办法》。 |
2008 |
颁布了《生物多样性基本法案》:该法案规定了利益相关者的伙伴关系、公众参与大型项目早期环境影响评价决策,作为生物多样性的基本政策支柱。 |
2010 |
颁布了《地方一级生物多样性保护活动法》(SATOCHI SATOYAMA法):该法鼓励利益攸关方开展伙伴关系活动,在地方一级保护生物多样性。 |
2011 |
《环境影响评估法》已修订。修订和加强了《通过环境教育促进环境保护活动法》:将政府与私营部门/非营利组织之间的伙伴关系活动制度化,并在该法中具体规定了公民的政策建议。 |
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