Personality rights: a comparative overview
Johann Neethling
Professor: School of Law, University of South Africa
Abstract
This contribution entails a comparative review or synopsis of the present state of the protection of personality rights. Realistically, this can only be a snapshot of the status quo in various legal systems and is not intended to give a detailed exposition. The aim is to summarisc, systemise and to an extent critically reflect on the available literature, as well as to identify particular dogmatic and practical problems. The research results may also stimulate in-depth examination of particular aspects of personality protection. The topics dealt with arc the recognition and basis of protection of personality rights, the scope of their protection, the relationship between the general right to personality and specific personality rights, the nature of personality rights and personality harm, the classification of specific personality rights, the distinction between personality rights and certain patrimonial rights, personality rights as human rights, post-mortem personality protection, and the personality rights of juristic persons.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Personality rights, which recognise a person as a physical and spiritual-moral being and guarantee his enjoyment of his own sense of existence, are today protected in various countries to a greater or lesser degree. But the concept of personality rights is not new. In particular classical natural law, with its notion of innate, inalienable human rights which included various rights relating to personality, forms the background to the modern concept. In 1877 Gareis, and after him Gierke and Kohler, postulated the idea of a general right to personality from which particular rights or interests of personality may develop, such as (the rights to) physical integrity, freedom, and dignity. Gierke even enumerated the characteristics which distinguish personality rights from other rights: they are private rights, of a non-patrimonial nature and highly personal in the sense that they are connected to the personality of their holder and terminate with his death (in other words, they are nontransferable and unhereditable). However, whereas Gareis and Gierkc considered the products of the human mind as part of the general right of personality, Kohler distinguished between such intellectual property and personality rights, demonstrating that a persons intellectual creations exist independently of his personality, and form a separate category of legal objects, namely immaterial or intellectual property. Today the idea of personality rights as a separate group of private rights is firmly established on the European continent, and has also made its appearance elsewhere (for example, in South Africa and the USA). The different legal systems nevertheless do not share the same views on the recognition and scope of protection of these rights.
RECOGNITION AND BASIS OF PROTECTION OF PERSONALITY RIGHTS
Since as a rule individuals attach considerable significance to facets of their personality - so much so that most personality rights have also been entrenched as human rights9 - and are accordingly sensitive to infringements thereof, it can as premise be accepted that all legal systems strive towards, and indeed have an obligation, because of their human rights connotation, I to provide for comprehensive personality protection. In this regard a differentiated approach has been followed.
First of all, there are those systems, of which German law is the best example, that recognise a general right to personality as a basis for comprehensive personality protection. Although such a basis existed in the common law of that country under the actio injuriarum, it was not included in the BGB, mainly because the protection by criminal sanctions of dignity alone was considered sufficient. Specific personality rights were nevertheless statutorily recognised, namely the rights to a name, image, dignity, reputation, body, life,freedom and health. However, the paramount significance attached to human dignity and the free development of personality in the Constitution brought about a radical change in 1954 when the BGII recognised a general right to personality - a development confirmed by the BverfG and considered by Larenz and Canaris to be the most important change in German tort law since the enactment of the BGB. The basis of the protection of personality is thus the general right to personality which comprises all aspects of personality and can be regarded as the fountain (M1Utterrecht) from which all concrete or specific rights of personality flow. These rights are either embodied in legislation as indicated, or the), may be recognised by the courts, for example, the rights to privacy and identity. The general right can thus be regarded as a general clause on which expansion of personality protection can be based.
At the opposite pole are those systems which have and see no need for the recognition of a general right to personality because their law possesses a different foundation for comprehensive personality protection. French law provides a clear example. Here the courts developed an extensive protection of personality interests on the basis of the general delictual provisions of the CC, and especially by extending the concept of damage to personality harm.Some of these interests are physical integrity, dignity, good name, feelings (sentinents daffection), privacy and identity (including name and image), and may be identified by the courts as objects of personality rights . A few of these interests have furthermore been granted legislative protection, the most prominent of which is the express recognition of privacy in the CC. As a result of the all-embracing protection of especially the principle
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人格权:比较概述
约翰·尼斯凌
教授:南非大学法学院
摘要
本文包括对人格权利保护现状的比较审查或概述。实际上,这只能算是关于各种法律制度现状的一个缩影,而不是要给出详细的说明。其目的是对现有文献以及确定教条和实际问题的总结、系统化和批判反思。研究结果也可能激发人们对人格保护特定方面的深入研究。本文旨在解决人格权的界定和基础、保护的范围、一般人格权和具体人格权之间的关系、人格权的性质、人格损害、具体人格权的分类、人格权与传统权利的界限等方面的问题。人格权是人权,是事后对个人的保护和法律意义上的人之为人的权利。
历史背景
如今,人格权在不同国家或多或少都受到保护。人格权关乎承认一个人的肉体和精神上的道德存在,并保证其享有自己的存在感。但是人格权的概念并不新鲜。尤其是古典自然法,其固有的、不可剥夺的人权概念,包括与人格有关的各种权利,构成了现代概念的背景。在1877年,加雷和在他之后的基克尔和科勒均提出了人格的一般权利的概念,而人格的特殊权利或利益可以由此发展而来,例如身体完整、自由和尊严的权利。基克尔甚至枚举区分人格权利与其他权利的特征:他们是私权,不是世袭的权利,是连接个人存在和死亡终止感受的高度自我(换句话说,他们是不可转让亦不可继承的)。然而,尽管基克尔和加雷认为人类思维的产物是作为人格的一般权利的一部分,科勒却区分了知识产权和人格等权利,证明了一个人的智力创造独立于他的人格之外,并形成一个单独的法律对象的类别,即非物质性或知识产权。今天,将人格权作为单独的一组私人权利的想法在欧洲大陆牢固确立,并在其他地方出现(例如,在南非和美国)。然而,不同的法律制度对这些权利的承认和保护范围的看法却不尽相同。
人格权的确认与保护依据
自从作为一项规则对个人附加相当大的意义方面的人格——以至于大多数人格权利也根深蒂固地认为是人权——和对侵权行为相应的敏感,它可以作为前提而被接受,所有的法律制度为之奋斗,而且确实有义务因为他们的人格权内涵而提供全面的人格的保护。在这方面,采取了区别对待的办法。
首先,有一些体系认为普遍的人格权利是全面人格保护的基础,其中,德国法律就是最好的例子。尽管在该国普通法中存在这种基础,但它并未包括在民法典中,主要是因为仅通过刑事制裁对尊严的保护就被认为是足够的。尽管如此,法律还是承认了特定的人格权,即名称权,形象权,尊严权,名誉权,身体,生命权,自由权和健康权。然而,宪法赋予人的尊严和人格自由发展的最重要意义,在1954年德国联邦最高法院承认一般人格权时发生了根本性变化-贝尔格确认并由拉伦茨和卡纳里斯认为是自德国民法典颁布以来的人格权的发展在德国侵权法中最重要的变化。因此,保护人格的基础是一般性人格权,它包括人格的所有方面,可以看作是所有具体或特定人格权的源泉。这些权利要么体现在作为指示的立法中,要么被法院认可,例如,隐私权和身份权。因此,一般权利可以被视为扩展人格保护的一般条款。
与之相对的是那些认为不需要承认一般人格权的制度,因为它们的法律对全面人格保护有不同的基础。法国法律就是一个明显的例子。在这方面,法院根据法律委员会的一般法律规定,特别是通过将损害的概念扩大损害人格的程度,扩大了对人格利益的保护。这些利益包括人身完整、尊严、良好的名声、感情(类“亲情”)、隐私和身份(包括姓名和形象),法院可将其认定为人格权的客体。少数此类利益还被进一步予以立法保护,最突出的是在委员会确认条款中表示的对隐私权界限的认定。结果是,由于包罗万象的保护尤其是侵权行为的原则,没有必要再认可一般人格的权利——如德国法律。除此之外,这一权利的实际意义也受到法国法学家的质疑,因为具体人格权的具体化在任何情况下仍然是必要的。这里也可以提到南达科他州的法律。由于侵权之诉提供了对人格的种类繁多的保护,因此不需要承认一般的人格权利。独立的人格权利承认和保护,包括权利主体(身体和心灵的完整性),自由(身体自由)和名誉(名声),以及有关安乐死的权利也被视为一个对于所有其他人格权利的集体项,尤其尊严的版权,隐私,在较小程度上,情感和身份。尊严的概念是承认进一步的人格权利的基础,因此,扩大人格保护在一些情况下是很有必要的。
第三,有些制度虽然有全面保护人格的另一种依据,但同时也承认普遍的人格权。例如,在荷兰和奥地利就是这种情况。在奥地利,不仅在明确强调人格权的公法条款中,而且在一般的私法条款中,都提供了全面承认和保护人格权的基础。但是,长期以来,法院对实现人格权产生了抑制性影响。这些规定的全部潜力,拒绝(反法律)将人格保护范围扩大到立法明确承认的案件之外,这也许是奥地利法院最近采用一般人格权的原因。特定人格权(例如生命权,人身完整权,形象权,隐私权和尊严权也得到承认。在荷兰,尽管《生物武器公约》有一般性的剥夺性条款,而且该条款还规定了在自然人的侵权,尊严,名誉或任何其他人的侵权情况下判给非金钱损失的规定,其中包括:非人身伤害(例如精神疾病),侵犯隐私权和行动自由受到干扰,最高法院于1994年承认存在普遍的人格权,据说这项权利巩固了其他基本权利,如权利隐私权,尽管其法律性质仍不确定。尽管荷兰法律承认人格权(例如生命权,身心健康权,行动自由权,尊严权,好名誉,身份,自治权和隐私权),但最引人注目德国和荷兰关于一般人格权的概念的区别在于,前者引起了各种特定人格权的创造,而后者的发展速度一直非常缓慢。
第四类介于法国和奥地利模式之间。瑞士是第一个实施现代人格权理论的国家,它提供了全面的法定保护,以防止任何对法律主观性的干扰或对人格的不当侵犯(以前为人身关系)。 1983年,这种保护变得更加全面,特别是在大众媒体方面。但是,关于人格权的一般性却没有达成共识。一些法学家接受基尔克的广义概念,它不仅包含真正的人格权,而且还包括法律人格本身,包括经济活动的自由,而另一些学者仅承认特定的人格权。为了便于在实践中处理人格保护的问题,实践中的做法是承认人格的特定权利(除了一般权利外)。以这种方式认可的人格权包括生命权、身体完整性、行动自由权、感情(或情绪)权、名誉权、尊严权、隐私和身份(包括姓名和形象)的权利。然而,与加雷和基尔克一样,瑞士法律也保护诸如商业企业(反对非法竞争)之类的传统(经济)利益,以及作为人格特征的非物质财产(商标和商品名称)。
可以得出结论:尽管在承认一般人格权方面采取了不同的方法,但在上述制度中,特定的人格权均得到成文法或法院承认。这些权利尤其包括生命权,人身完整权,人身自由,声誉,尊严,隐私权,身份(包括姓名和形象)和感情(情感)。
与以前的制度相反,在英国法律中,与大多数普通法国家一样,人格权利的学说和承认实际上是不存在的。由于历史的发展,人格保护是以侵权法为基础的。这里适用的侵权行为范围很广,包括人身攻击、殴打、非法拘禁、诽谤、虚假诉讼、恶意起诉、故意施加精神痛苦和破坏信心。这些侵权行为所保护的人格利益,即身心完整、自由、名誉、隐私和尊严,很少受到关注。但是,这些侵权行为都不适合作为全面人格保护的基础。此外,英国普通法显然缺乏承认和保护人格利益的能力,而人格利益虽不属于现有侵权行为之一,但仍然值得保护。一个明显的例子是英国法律未能认识到隐私权和身份尽管其他补救措施提供了(在越来越多的范围内)对某些侵犯隐私的事件(特别是对违反信任的行为)的附带救济。隐私权的不确定性太高,对新闻自由的限制太多,这并没有阻止大多数其他国家承认这一权利。在英格兰,只有很少的偶然保护人的尊严。在英国,对人的尊严的附带保护也很少。
不同于大多数其他普通法国家,由于各种原因,人格权的概念在美国得到了接受。一个重要因素是法理学对人格不同利益的关注,以及对人格创造的理论和实践的关注。扩大人格保护的基础。在这方面,沃伦和布兰代斯为将隐私权作为更普遍的人格权的一部分奠定了基础。但是,美国的隐私权不仅可以保护隐私,而且可以扩展得更广,以至于这一被单独保留的权利与德国的一般人格权具有令人惊讶的相似之处。但是,所涉及的人格利益尚未确定。普罗瑟的观点得到了法院和法学家的普遍支持,将隐私权分为四个不同的侵权行为(侵犯,出版,虚假陈述和不正当使用),侵犯了不同的利益(即精神利益、名誉和世袭利益)。布鲁斯泰因则将人的尊严视为保护的对象。最高法院还保护隐私权下的自治权。
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