Legal Framework for Equal Employment
Laws on Sex/Gender Discrimination
A number of laws and regulation address discrimination on the bases of sex/gender .Historically, women experienced employment discrimination in a variety of ways. The inclusion of sex as a basis for protected-class status in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act has led to various areas of protection for women.
Pregnancy Discrimination The Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA) of 1978 requires that any employer with 15or more employees treat maternity leave the same as other personal or medical leaves. Closely related to the PDA is the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) of 1993, which requires to the PDA is the Family and Medical Leave of family leave without pay and also requires that those taking family leave be allowed to return to jobs (see Chapter 14 for details). The FMLA applies to both men and women.
In court cases it generally has been ruled that the PDA requires employers to treat pregnant employees the same as no pregnant employees with similar abilities or inabilities. Therefore, an employer was ruled to have acted properly when terminating a pregnant employee for excessive absenteeism due to pregnancy-related illnesses because the employee was not treated differently than other employee with absenteeism problem. However, in another case, a dental employee who was fired five days after she told her manager that she was pregnant was awarded $18,460 by a court decision that ruled her employer violated the PDA.
Two other areas somewhat related to pregnancy and motherhood also have been subjects of legal and regulatory action. The U.S. Equal Employment Commission has ruled that denial of health insurance coverage for prescription contraceptives under employer-provided health plans violates the PDA. A result of this ruling is that employers who have changed their health insurance plans to offer contraceptive coverage may face increases in benefit costs.
A number of states have passed laws that guarantee breast-feeding rights at work for new mothers. Although attempts have been to enact such legislation at the federal level, that legislation has not been enacted yet.
Equal Pay and Pay Equity The Equal Pay Act of 1963 requires employers to pay similarwage rates for similar work without regard to gender. A common core of tasks must be similar, but tasks performed only intermittently or infrequently do not make jobs different enough to justify significantly different wages. Differences in pay may be allowed because of: (1) differences in seniority, (2) differences in performance, (3) differences in quality and/or quantity of production, and (4) factors other than sex, such as skill, effort, and working conditions. For example, a university was found to have violated the Equal Pay Act by paying a female professor a starting salary lower than salaries paid to male professors with similar responsibilities. In fact, the court found that the woman professor with taught larger classes and had more total students than some of the male faculty members.
Another pay-related theory is pay equity, which is that the pay for jobs requiring comparable levels of knowledge, skill, and ability should be similar, even if actual duties differ significantly. This theory has also been called comparable worth in earlier cases. But except where state laws have mandated pay equity for public-sector employees, U.S. federal courts generally have ruled that the existence of pay differences between jobs held by women and jobs held by men is not sufficient to prove that illegal discrimination has occurred.
A major reason for the development of the pay equity idea is the continuing gap between the earning of women and men. For instance, in 1980, the average annual pay of full-time women workers was 60% of full-time men workers. By 2001, the reported rate of 72% showed some progress. More in-depth data and research studies have shown that when education and experience differences of men and women are considered, women earn about 90% of what comparable men workers earn. Another interesting reason for the pay differential, job mobility and changing employers, is explored in the HR Perspective.
Sexual Harassment Regulations and Cases The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has issued guidelines designed to curtail sexual harassment. Sexual harassment refers to actions that are sexually directed, ate a hostile work environment. Sexual harassment conditions or creates a hostile work environment. Sexual harassment can occur between a boss and a subordinate, among co-workers, and when non-employees have business contacts with employees.
According to EEOC statistics, more than 90% of sexual harassment charges filed involve harassment of women by men. However, some sexual harassment cases have been filed by menagainst women managers and supervisors, and for sexual harassment complaints is contained in Chapter 5.
Figure 4-4 Major Section of the Americans with Disabilities Act
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Title Ⅱ |
Title Ⅲ |
Title Ⅳ |
Title Ⅴ |
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Employment Provisions |
Public Participation and Service |
Public Access |
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Administration And Enforcement |
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Prohibits employment- related discrimination against persons with disabilities |
Prohibits discrimination related to participation of disabled persons in government programs and for public transportation |
Ensures accessibility of public and commercial facilities |
Requires provision of telecommunications capabilities and television clos 剩余内容已隐藏，支付完成后下载完整资料 中文译文： 平等就业的法律框架 性/性别歧视方面的法律 一系列法规设计性/性别歧视。一直以来，妇女承受了各种各样的就业歧视。1964年《公民权利法案》第七章把“性”作为界定受保护群体身份的一项基础，从而引申出许多保护妇女权益的领域。 怀孕歧视 1978年《反歧视怀孕法案》（PDA）要求雇用15人以上的雇主把生育假期放在与其他个人假期或医疗假期同等重要的地位。1993年《家庭与医疗休假法案》（FMLA）与《反歧视怀孕法案》紧密相关。《家庭与医疗休假法案》要求雇主给员工12周无薪家庭假期，并允许休家庭假期的员工休假后回到他们的工作岗位。《家庭与医疗休假法案》适用于男性，也适用于女性。 从现有案例来看，法庭一般裁定，《反歧视怀孕法案》要求雇主平等对待怀孕员工与工作能力类似的其他员工。例如，有一位员工因怀孕不适而经常性缺勤，结果被雇主解雇了。法庭判该雇主措施得当，因为雇主对待该员工与对待其他员工缺勤的做法是相同的。然而，在另外一个案例中，一位牙科员工告诉她的上司她怀孕了，结果五天后她就被解雇了。法庭判决企业违反了《反歧视怀孕法案》，赔付18460美元。 另外两个与怀孕和生育相关的领域也受到法规的管束。美国平等就业机会委员会规定，雇主拒绝把避孕用品处方纳入其向员工提供健康计划保险中是违法《反歧视怀孕法案》的。这一裁决导致的一个结果是，如果企业更改健康保险计划，为员工提供避孕品，那意味着企业将要承担更多的福利成本。美国多个州已经通过法令，保证新妈妈们在工作期间喂奶的权利，但联邦会议尚未通过这样的法令。 同酬和薪酬平等 1963年《同酬法案》要求雇主不考虑性别因素，做到同工同酬。同工是指工作中共同的核心任务相似，工作中一些偶尔为之的任务不足以成为企业支付不同工资率的理由。在以下情况下，雇主可以向承担相似工作的员工支付不同的工资：（1）员工的资历不同；（2）员工的业绩不同；（3）生产的产量或质量不一样；（4）技能、努力程度、工作环境等除性别外的因素。比如说，一所大学付给女教授的基本工资低于付给相同职责的南教授的工资，该大学就违反了《同酬法案》。法庭发现，事实上，这名女教授比一些男教员的授课量更大，学生更多。 另一个薪酬理论是薪酬平等，指即使工作职责显著不同，只要工作需要的知识、技巧和能力类似，薪酬就应具有可比性。以前的案例把这一理论称为同值同酬。但一些州修改了对事业机关员工的薪酬平等条款，因而它们不适用薪酬平等理论。美国联邦法院一般裁定女性员工的工作岗位与男性员工工作岗位之间的工资差别不足以证明存在歧视。 提倡薪酬平等的主要原因是男性与女性之间长期以来存在收入差距。1980年全职女性员工的年均收入只有全职男性员工的60%，到2001年这一比例提高到了72%，取得了一定的进步。此外，一些研究人员考虑到教育程度和工作经验带来的影响，他们的研究结果表明，女性收入是可比较的男性收入的90%。人力资源视角将探讨导致收入差别的其他原因，包括工作流动性和跳槽。 性骚扰方面的法规和案例 平等就业机会委员会对减少性骚扰做出了指导意见。性骚扰是指是不受欢迎的与性相关的行为，该行为会使员工陷于不利的雇用环境或导致敌对的工作环境。性骚扰可能发生在上司和下属之间、同事之间，也可能发生在员工和与其有业务联系的企业外部人士之间。 根据平等就业机会委员会的统计，90%以上的性骚扰指控是男性对女性的骚扰。也有一些性骚扰案例是同性之间的性骚扰，或男性指控女上司或女主管性骚扰。第5章将对性骚扰的预防和调查做出进一步的谈论。 《美国残疾人法案》 1990年《美国残疾人法案》（ADA）扩展了法律和规章制度对于歧视残疾人的管辖范畴和力度。
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