Introduction to Objects
“We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language ... we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees.” Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)
The genesis of the computer revolution was in a machine. The genesis of our programming languages thus tends to look like that machine.
But computers are not so much machines as they are mind amplification tools (“bicycles for the mind,” as Steve Jobs is fond of saying) and a different kind of expressive medium. As a result, the tools are beginning to look less like machines and more like parts of our minds, and also like other forms of expression such as writing, painting, sculpture, animation, and filmmaking. Object-oriented programming (OOP) is part of this movement toward using the computer as an expressive medium.
This chapter will introduce you to the basic concepts of OOP, including an overview of development methods. This chapter, and this book, assume that you have had experience in a procedural programming language, although not necessarily C. If you think you need more preparation in programming and the syntax of C before tackling this book, you should work through the Foundations for Java training CD ROM, bound in the back of this book.
This chapter is background and supplementary material. Many people do not feel comfortable wading into object-oriented programming without understanding the big picture first. Thus, there are many concepts that are introduced here to give you a solid overview of OOP. However, other people may not get the big picture concepts until theyrsquo;ve seen some of the mechanics first; these people may become bogged down and lost without some code to get their hands on. If yoursquo;re part of this latter group and are eager to get to the specifics of the language, feel free to jump past this chapter—skipping it at this point will not prevent you from writing programs or learning the language. However, you will want to come back here eventually to fill in your knowledge so you can understand why objects are important and how to design with them.
The progress of abstraction
All programming languages provide abstractions. It can be argued that the complexity of the problems yoursquo;re able to solve is directly related to the kind and quality of abstraction. By “kind” I mean, “What is it that you are abstracting?” Assembly language is a small abstraction of the underlying machine. Many so-called “imperative” languages that followed (such as FORTRAN, BASIC, and C) were abstractions of assembly language. These languages are big improvements over assembly language, but their primary abstraction still requires you to think in terms of the structure of the computer rather than the structure of the problem you are trying to solve. The programmer must establish the association between the machine model (in the “solution space,” which is the place where yoursquo;re modeling that problem, such as a computer) and the model of the problem that is actually being solved (in the “problem space,” which is the place where the problem exists). The effort required to perform this mapping, and the fact that it is extrinsic to the programming language, produces programs that are difficult to write and expensive to maintain, and as a side effect created the entire “programming methods” industry.
The alternative to modeling the machine is to model the problem yoursquo;re trying to solve. Early languages such as LISP and APL chose particular views of the world (“All problems are ultimately lists” or “All problems are algorithmic,” respectively). PROLOG casts all problems into chains of decisions. Languages have been created for constraint-based programming and for programming exclusively by manipulating graphical symbols. (The latter proved to be too restrictive.) Each of these approaches is a good solution to the particular class of problem theyrsquo;re designed to solve, but when you step outside of that domain they become awkward.
The object-oriented approach goes a step further by providing tools for the programmer to represent elements in the problem space. This representation is general enough that the programmer is not constrained to any particular type of problem. We refer to the elements in the problem space and their representations in the solution space as “objects.” (You will also need other objects that donrsquo;t have problem-space analogs.) The idea is that the program is allowed to adapt itself to the lingo of the problem by adding new types of objects, so when you read the code describing the solution, yoursquo;re reading words that also express the problem. This is a more flexible and powerful language abstraction than what wersquo;ve had before. Thus, OOP allows you to describe the problem in terms of the problem, rather than in terms of the computer where the solution will run. Therersquo;s still a connection back to the computer: each object looks quite a bit like a little computer—it has a state, and it has operations that you can ask it to perform. However, this doesnrsquo;t seem like such a bad analogy to objects in the real world—they all have characteristics and behaviors.
Alan Kay summarized five basic characteristics of Smalltalk, the first successful object-oriented language and one of the languages upon which Java is based. These characteristics represent a pure approach to object-oriented programming:
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对象入门
“为什么面向对象的编程会在软件开发领域造成如此震憾的影响？”
面向对象编程（OOP）具有多方面的吸引力。对管理人员，它实现了更快和更廉价的开发与维护过程。对分析与设计人员，建模处理变得更加简单，能生成清晰、易于维护的设计方案。对程序员，对象模型显得如此高雅和浅显。此外，面向对象工具以及库的巨大威力使编程成为一项更使人愉悦的任务。每个人都可从中获益，至少表面如此。
如果说它有缺点，那就是掌握它需付出的代价。思考对象的时候，需要采用形象思维，而不是程序化的思维。与程序化设计相比，对象的设计过程更具挑战性——特别是在尝试创建可重复使用（可再生）的对象时。过去，那些初涉面向对象编程领域的人都必须进行一项令人痛苦的选择：
(1) 选择一种诸如Smalltalk的语言，“出师”前必须掌握一个巨型的库。
(2) 选择几乎根本没有库的C （注释①），然后深入学习这种语言，直至能自行编写对象库。
①：幸运的是，这一情况已有明显改观。现在有第三方库以及标准的C 库供选用。
事实上，很难很好地设计出对象——从而很难设计好任何东西。因此，只有数量相当少的“专家”能设计出最好的对象，然后让其他人享用。对于成功的OOP语言，它们不仅集成了这种语言的语法以及一个编译程序（编译器），而且还有一个成功的开发环境，其中包含设计优良、易于使用的库。所以，大多数程序员的首要任务就是用现有的对象解决自己的应用问题。本章的目标就是向大家揭示出面向对象编程的概念，并证明它有多么简单。
本章将向大家解释Java的多项设计思想，并从概念上解释面向对象的程序设计。但要注意在阅读完本章后，并不能立即编写出全功能的Java程序。所有详细的说明和示例会在本书的其他章节慢慢道来。
抽象的进步
所有编程语言的最终目的都是提供一种“抽象”方法。一种较有争议的说法是：解决问题的复杂程度直接取决于抽象的种类及质量。这儿的“种类”是指准备对什么进行“抽象”？汇编语言是对基础机器的少量抽象。后来的许多“命令式”语言（如FORTRAN，BASIC和C）是对汇编语言的一种抽象。与汇编语言相比，这些语言已有了长足的进步，但它们的抽象原理依然要求我们着重考虑计算机的结构，而非考虑问题本身的结构。在机器模型（位于“方案空间”）与实际解决的问题模型（位于“问题空间”）之间，程序员必须建立起一种联系。这个过程要求人们付出较大的精力，而且由于它脱离了编程语言本身的范围，造成程序代码很难编写，而且要花较大的代价进行维护。由此造成的副作用便是一门完善的“编程方法”学科。
为机器建模的另一个方法是为要解决的问题制作模型。对一些早期语言来说，如LISP和APL，它们的做法是“从不同的角度观察世界”——“所有问题都归纳为列表”或“所有问题都归纳为算法”。PROLOG则将所有问题都归纳为决策链。对于这些语言，我们认为它们一部分是面向基于“强制”的编程，另一部分则是专为处理图形符号设计的。每种方法都有自己特殊的用途，适合解决某一类的问题。但只要超出了它们力所能及的范围，就会显得非常笨拙。
面向对象的程序设计在此基础上则跨出了一大步，程序员可利用一些工具表达问题空间内的元素。由于这种表达非常普遍，所以不必受限于特定类型的问题。我们将问题空间中的元素以及它们在方案空间的表示物称作“对象”（Object）。当然，还有一些在问题空间没有对应体的其他对象。通过添加新的对象类型，程序可进行灵活的调整，以便与特定的问题配合。所以在阅读方案的描述代码时，会读到对问题进行表达的话语。与我们以前见过的相比，这无疑是一种更加灵活、更加强大的语言抽象方法。总之，OOP允许我们根据问题来描述问题，而不是根据方案。然而，仍有一个联系途径回到计算机。每个对象都类似一台小计算机；它们有自己的状态，而且可要求它们进行特定的操作。与现实世界的“对象”或者“物体”相比，编程“对象”与它们也存在共通的地方：它们都有自己的特征和行为。
Alan Kay总结了Smalltalk的五大基本特征。这是第一种成功的面向对象程序设计语言，也是Java的基础语言。通过这些特征，我们可理解“纯粹”的面向对象程序设计方法是什么样的：
(1) 所有东西都是对象。可将对象想象成一种新型变量；它保存着数据，但可要求它对自身进行操作。理论上讲，可从要解决的问题身上提出所有概念性的组件，然后在程序中将其表达为一个对象。
(2) 程序是一大堆对象的组合；通过消息传递，各对象知道自己该做些什么。为了向对象发出请求，需向那个对象“发送一条消息”。更具体地讲，可将消息想象为一个调用请求，它调用的是从属于目标对象的一个子例程或函数。
(3) 每个对象都有自己的存储空间，可容纳其他对象。或者说，通过封装现有对象，可制作出新型对象。所以，尽管对象的概念非常简单，但在程序中却可达到任意高的复杂程度。
(4) 每个对象都有一种类型。根据语法，每个对象都是某个“类”的一个“实例”。其中，“类”（Class）是“类型”（Type）的同义词。一个类最重要的特征就是“能将什么消息发给它？”。
(5) 同一类所有对象都能接收相同的消息。这实际是别有含义的一种说法，大家不久便能理解。由于类型为“圆”（Circle）的一个对象也属于类型为“形状”（Shape）的一个对象，所以一个圆完全能接收形状消息。这意味着可让程序代码统一指挥“形状”，令其自动控制所有符合“形状”描述的对象，其中自然包括“圆”。这一特性称为对象的“可替换性”，是OOP最重要的概念之一。
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