外文原文
Naturalistic Observational Field Techniques for Traffic Psychology Research
David W. Eby
Michigan Center for Advancing Safe Transportation throughout the Lifespan and University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
1.INTRODUCTION
As the name implies, naturalistic observation takes place in the setting in which the behavior of interest occurs. In terms of traffic psychology, this setting consists of the roadway network and the vehicle occupants who travel on these roadways. The research method of naturalistic observation involves a researcher (or, more commonly, several researchers) making careful observations about what he or she sees on the roadways. These observations can occur as the behavior is happening, or the behavior can be video recorded and observed at a later time.
Naturalistic observation is a hallmark of scientific inquiry and is central to many empirical data collection efforts. There are two main strengths of this method. The first is that it taps directly into the behavior of interest and does not rely on having to interpret proxies of behaviors such as self-reports. Second, because the behaviors observed occur in natural settings, naturalistic observation has strong construct and face validity; that is, it very likely represents realitydan argument that is more difficult to make with other research methods, such as a driving simulator.
On the other hand, naturalistic observation as a research method has some drawbacks. The main disadvantage is generalizability. Because the observed behaviors are only a sample of all of the behaviors that occur, it is difficult to conclude that the observed behaviors would also occur for other people who have not been observed. Although a good sampling design can minimize this issue, it cannot be eliminated. Another limitation is that the technique involves observers (data collectors) who may have biases that affect what they see and record. Such observer bias, however, can be diminished through training. Finally, naturalistic observational methods can be labor-intensive and, therefore, costly. To enhance generalizability and reduce observer bias, well-conducted studies utilizing naturalistic observation methods often require a team of well-trained researchers and many hours of observation during the study in which behaviors are observed.
Naturalistic observation was one of the earliest research methods used in traffic safety research. Indeed, based on naturalistic observation of driver behavior nearly a century ago, Dodge (1923) argued for a systematic exploration of human behavior in traffic to improve safety. This argument appeared in an article published in the proceedings of the Highway Research Board, now known as the Trans- portation Research Board. Naturalistic observation has been used extensively in the past century, and it is still commonly used today. An examination of the research methods used in highway safety studies reported in the first issue in 2010 of a highly rated traffic safety journal, Acci- dent Analysis and Prevention, showed that approximately 10% of the studies used naturalistic observation for data collection. As a comparison, in this same issue, 55% of studies analyzed existing crash/injury databases; 16% used driving or crash simulation; 10% used self-reported ques- tionnaire data; and the rest used other research techniques, such as radar-acquired proximity data from a vehicle.
2.TECHNIQUES
The value of naturalistic observation techniques to any area of traffic psychology is dependent on how well the study is designed and executed. A study with a flawed design will not yield results that are generalizable, and even a well- designed study will not be useful if the observational methods are not valid and reliable. This section discusses some of the issues related to conducting high-quality naturalistic observation research.
2.1.Deciding to Use Naturalistic Observation
As discussed in the previous section, naturalistic observa- tion is a very good method for answering many questions in traffic psychology and is the preferred method for some research questions. Conversely, there are many issues in traffic safety that are not amenable to naturalistic obser- vation. How does one decide whether to use naturalistic observation or some other research method? Responding to several questions can be helpful:
1.What is the purpose of your research project? If the purpose is to document the frequency or occurrence of some behavior, then this method might be useful. If you are interested in understanding the underlying causes of a behavior, then some other method would be more appropriate.
2.Can the behavior of interest be accurately and reliably judged through visual inspection? As I have described, behaviors such as safety belt use in passenger vehicles can be easily seen. However, before I conducted my first large-scale survey of child safety seat use, I made sure that use could be observed through a number of pilot tests, including under controlled conditions using infant crash-test dummies and real-world settings (Eby amp; Kostyniuk, 1999; Eby, Kostyniuk, amp; Christoff, 1997). Not all in-vehicle behaviors can be accurately observed.
3.What is the population of interest? It is important to think about this question for two reasons. First, it can be very difficult to design a cost-effective naturalistic observation study that is generalizable to a large pop- ulation, such as the population of a state, region, or country. Second, some populations may be difficult to locate in natural settings. For example, a study on the use of safety belts in a certain make and model of vehicle might present sampling challenges while attempting to find enough of those specific vehicles for the survey to be valid.
4.What are your resources? Naturalistic observation can be labor-intensive. Depending on
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