附录B 外文原文
Fiscal Policy in a Model With Financial Frictions
By Jesuacute;s Fernaacute;ndez-Villaverde
What are the effects of fiscal policy in the presence of financial frictions? This question is particularly relevant given the great recession of 2008–2009, how forcefully some governments have resorted to fiscal stimulus over the last two years to fight it, and the widespread view that financial markets have played a decisive role in our current economic problems. To analyze this topic, I build a dynamic stochastic general equlibrium (DSGE) model with financial frictions and fiscal policy, calibrate it to observations of the US economy, and compute the response of output to several fiscal shocks.
I.ensp;A DSGE Model with Financial Frictions and Fiscal Policy
Due to space constraints, I will only briefly describe the main elements of the model that I employ for my investigation. The interested reader can find a more detailed exposition in Fernaacute;ndez- Villaverde (2010). Suffice it to say in terms of motivation that the model is based on the work of Ben S. Bernanke, Mark Gertler, and Simon Gilchrist (1999) and Lawrence J. Christiano, Roberto Motto, and Massimo Rostagno (2009) that has successfully been applied to study business cycle dynamics. The model has a representative household, final and intermediate good producers, producers of capital, entrepreneurs,financial intermediaries, and a government that conducts monetary and fiscal policy. The financial frictions appear as a consequence of information asymmetries between lenders and borrowers.
The representative household maximizes:
*University of Pennsylvania and FEDEA, 160 McNeil, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104 (e-mail: jesusfv@econ.upenn.edu). I thank the NSF for research support under Grant 0719405.
where ct is consumption, lt hours worked, pt the price level, mt-1/Pt real money balances carried into the period, beta; the discount factor, h habit persistence, and ϕt an intertemporal preference shock with law of motion:
The intertemporal shock allows me to account for shifts in aggregate demand in a simple way.
The household can save using:
bull; Money balances to carry into the next period, mt.
bull; Nominal deposits at the financial intermediary, at , which pay an uncontingent nominal gross interest rate Rt .
bull; Nominal public debt, dt , which yields an uncontingent nominal gross return Rdt.
bull; Arrow securities over all possible events (which, however, I do not include explicitly in the notation since they are in zero net supply).
Given the portfolio possibilities, the households budget constraint is:
where consumption is taxed at rate tau;c,t , the real wage wt is taxed at a rate tau;l,t , the net returns on deposits are taxed at rate tau;R,t, Tt is a lump sum transfer from the result of open market operations of the monetary authority, Ϝt are the profits of the firms in the economy (financial and non-financial) plus the inter-mediation costs of the financial firm, and tret is the net real transfer to new and from old entrepreneurs that I will describe momentarily.
There is one final good producer that aggregates intermediate goods according to:
where ε is the elasticity of substitution across goods. Therefore, the price level is given by:
There is a continuum of intermediate goods producers that enjoy market power on their own good. Each intermediate good producer i has access to a production functionwhere kit-1 is the capital and lit the amount of labor rented by the firm, and where the productivity zt follows:
The intermediate goods producers are subject to a Calvo pricing mechanism. In each period,a fraction 1 minus; theta; of them can reoptimize their prices while all other firms can only index their prices by a fraction chi; of past inflation.
Capital is manufactured by a perfectly competitive capital good producer that buys installed capital, xt , and adds investment, it , using the final good, to generate new installed capital for the next period:
where S[1] = 0, S′[1] = 0, and SPrime;[·] gt; 0. The investment adjustment cost S[·] induces a relative price of capital of qt . By market clearing,the law of motion for aggregate capital is:
Entrepreneurs use their (end of period) real wealth, nt , and a nominal loan bt , to purchase installed capital kt :
When mapping into the data, we can think about wealth as equity and the loan as the sum of all liabilities of the firm. The presence of nominal debt opens the door for a “Fisher effect” where inflation increases (or deflation erodes) the net wealth of entrepreneurs. This point will play a key role in the results.
The purchased capital is shifted by a productivity shock omega;t 1 that is lognormally distributed with CDF F(omega;) and parameters mu;omega;,t and sigma;omega;,t that evolve over time with the restriction that = 1 for all t. The law of motion for sigma;omega;,t is:
Where is revealed at the end of period t, right before investment decisions for period t 1 are made. This shock reflects the idea of changing riskiness of projects.Quantitatively, it noticeably enhances the role of financial frictions.
The entrepreneur rents the capital to intermediate good producers, who pay rt 1 . Then, at the end of the period, the entrepreneur sells the undepreciated capital to the capital good producer at price qt 1 . Hence, the average return of the entrepreneur per nominal unit invested in period t is:
The debt contract is structured as follows. For every state with associated return on capital , entrepreneurs have to either service a state contingent gross nominal interest rate on the loan or default. If the entrepreneur defaults, it gets nothing: the financial intermediary seizes its revenue, although a proportion mu; of that revenue is lost in bankruptcy procedures. Hence, the entrepreneu
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附录A 译文
在金融摩擦模式下的货币政策
作者:耶稣费尔南德斯·维拉维德
货币政策在金融摩擦的存在下有什么影响呢?这个问题在2008-2009年的金融危机背景下有很强的现实意义。在过去的2年里,一些政府采取强有力的货币刺激来对抗经济萧条。还有一种广泛传播的观点认为,金融市场已经在当前经济问题中扮演了决定性的角色。为了分析这个议题,本文建立了一个动态的随机公式(DSGE)模型,里面包含经济摩擦和货币政策几种因素,基于美国经济进行了调整,并且计算出对几个货币政策影响的结果。
- 一个含有经济摩擦和货币政策的DSGE模型
因为篇幅有限,我只简单描述这个模型的主要因素,这些因素我用于进行了我的调查。感兴趣的读者可以找Fernaacute;ndez- Villaverde (2010)的更详细的报道。这个模型是基于Ben S. Bernanke, Mark Gertler, and Simon Gilchrist (1999) and Lawrence J. Christiano, Roberto Motto, and Massimo Rostagno (2009)的工作成果,已经成功运用于贸易循环动力中。这个模型有一个代表性的主体,最终和中间的好的生产商,资金生产商,企业家,金融中介,还有一个主导货币政策的政府。金融摩擦的表现为借出方和借入方的信息对称。这个具有代表性的公式为:〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇
其中ct代表消费, lt代表着工作时间,pt代表价格水平,mt-1/Pt 解释金钱平衡,beta;代表折扣印字,h代表习惯,ϕt代表法律变动中跨时期的的表现。
这个跨时期的震动允许我去说明积累的需求的转移。
这个主题可以用以下得出:
- 金钱用于平衡已进入下一个阶段,mt.
- 在金融跨时期阶段下的名义上的押金, at ,需要按照利率Rt 支付名义毛利
- 名义公共债务,dt,产出不依情况而变的名义增长Rdt
- 箭头保证了所有可能事件的发生,(但是这里我并不详细距离,因为在净供应中他们是0)
根据战略可能性,主体预算制约是:
〇〇
在这里,消费被以 tau;c,t的税率征税,真实的工资wt,以tau;l,t 的税率征税,基于存款的净回报被 tau;R,t征税,Tt是从君主协会的公开市场操作的总量和,Ϝt是经济体中公司的盈利加金融公司的中介费用,tret是从新到旧的企业的净转移,我稍后描述。
这里有一个最终的好的生产商,根据以下公式积累了中间的商品:
其中ε 是跨商品替换物的弹性。因此价格水平取决于:
这里有一个中介商品生产的连续,这个生产商享受对他们有好处的市场力量。每一个中间商商品生产商i有权限使用生产功能,其中的kit-1是资金,lit是公司租用的劳动力,生产力zt遵循
中间商品生产商是Calvo定价系统的主体。在每个阶段,一个1 minus; theta; 的部分可以重新放大他们的价格,在其他所有公司只可以按照过去通胀指数chi;定价的时候。
资金被一个完美的具有竞争力的资金货物生产商控制,他购买设定好的资金xt,增加投资it,使用金融产品,来为下一个阶段增加新的设定好的资金:
在这里S[1] = 0, S′[1] = 0, 并且 gt; 0。投资调整为成本引导了一个相关的资金qt的价格。根据市场澄清,根据运动的规则积累的资金是:
企业家使用他们的真实财富nt,以及一个成长的贷款bt,来购买固定的资金kt,
当适用于这个数据时,我们可以考虑一下财务作为公平并且贷款作为公司的全部债务和。正常债务的出现打开了费雪效应的大门,在这里通胀增加(或通缩减退)了企业主的财富。这一点对于结果的影响至关重要。
购买的资金被改变为生产力库存 omega;t 1 ,与CDF F(omega;) 成对数分布,指数 mu;omega;,t 和 sigma;omega;,t 随着时间发展,伴随限制, = 1 对所有t。对于sigma;omega;,t的运动规律是:
在这里 被解释为世界t的重点,正在投资决策 t 1时刻之前。这种震动反映了对项目的风险的想法。定量的,它显著增加了金融摩擦。
企业主出租资金来中介货物生产商,他们支付 rt 1 ,之后,在阶段最后,企业主以 qt 1的价格向资金生产商卖出未贬值的的资金。因此,企业主按照每个阶段t投入的单位平均回报是:
债务的结果是结构化的。每一个以资金有相关回报的州,企业主或者服务这个州依情况而变的名义利率 ,或者违约。如果企业主违约,他什么都得不到:在金融中介抓住他的营收时,尽管一部分的营收的mu;会在破产程序中丢失。因此,企业主需要永远履行他的职责,如果他有足够的营收支撑的话。这就是生产力最少也要搞到一个水平,在这个水平里企业可以激发他的债务的安案例:
如果 lt; ,企业主违约,金融中介会管控并且恢复 (1 minus; mu;)的营收。这个机制抓住了借入方和借出方的信息对称,可以被需要花费的州检查来包围。
债务合同决定了成为回报,例如金融中介机构满足了它在全球所有国家的0收益条件后:
其中Rt是主体的回报,在金融危机下保留了下来,st 是一个传播因子,由中介的花销产生(举个例子,例如债务合同的金融包销费用)。这个传播
的随机过程:
为了精简,我假设中介花销被退换给主体。零利润条件使得风险上岸,风险使传输权利到金融中介经过和的改变。和Rt之间的差异被称为金融溢价。以州情况而定的利润率是,捷径被选中,在公式中,为了最大化期望的净资产,在金融中介0盈利的条件下。这个最大化的解决方案暗示了所有的企业,不管他们的财富,都会有一样的尴尬,一个为了积累最方便的的特点。
在每个阶段的最后,一个部分 的企业主活下来,而剩下的死亡,并且他们的财富被征以100%的税。死亡的企业们被新的企业主代替,这些新的企业主以最开始的净资产we进入市场。股份 等于
其中 遵守
这里有一个具有代表性又有竞争力的金融公司,它调节了主体和企业主。在数据里,公司不只配合银行,也有其他的财务机构,例如风投公司或者投资基金,普遍用于对接储蓄者和投资者。金融中介按利率R t出借一个正常量的bt,但是从违约中恢复的话只需要一个税率 以及中介花费。因此,金融中介付出利益R t给主体。更进一步,通过市场净化,贷款必须等于存款,即at = bt (既然所有的债务都是短期的,我可以忘记对金融中介的保留要求)。
〇〇在经济中最后的代理是政府,它决定了财务和货币政策。为了是分析集中,首先,我提取了这两个政策中的互动(例如,我假设开放市场操作的结果是分散的,并且没有转移到政府经常性收入)。当前的联邦存留平衡以及它对美国财富承担的危险指示,尽管,这样的提取只是临时的简化,并且应该在不久的将来抹除。〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇
政府设立的正常收益率伴随泰勒规则:
尽管被资助的开放市场操作会被转移Tt。变量Pi; 是稳定的通货膨胀目标,并且R = Pi;/beta; 也是稳定的州对于公共债务的正常收入回报。是一个对财务政策的随机的震动。
政府的跨时期预算制约被以下表达:〇
〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇
其中 g t是政府就最终货物和税务营收的花销:
预算制约可以写为:
〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇
为了精简由通胀引发的真实公共债务的减少。
政府花销波动为: 〇 〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇〇其中 = log gt /是针对的对数分离,这个进程的方式,以及dg阻止了花销的敏感性和基于被经过一段时间的正常支出代入的政府债务税率。 一个负价值的dg 保证了模型有一个稳定的平衡。
税率的运动规律是:〇〇
其中我定义了:
= log(1 )/(1 ), = log(1 - )/(1 - ), and = log(1 - )/(1 - ).
为了完结这个模型,一些代数步骤给了我们对于积累需求的表达:
并且另一个对于积累供应的表达:
其中 di 是价格分离导致的低效率。根据Calvo定价系统下的资产指数,vt根据以下运行:
这个公式定义是标准的并且堆砌了对所有公司的最佳条件,市场净化条件,以及外因进程的运动规律。
Table 1—Calibrated Values
Preferences beta; = 0.999, h = 0.9, psi; = 3.83, thetasym; = 0.5
Technology alpha; = 0.22, delta; = 0.01, SPrime;[1] = 4.75
Rigidities ε = 10, theta; = 0.8, chi; = 0.6
Entrepreneur sigma;omega; = 0.5, b/p = 0.33, = 3.67
Intermediation mu; = 0.1, = 5.99
Taylor rule Pi; = 1.005, gamma;R = 0.95, gamma;Pi; = 0.95
Debt
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