非弱智学习困境学生的成因分析
原文作者: 柯克
摘要：从学习困境的研究历史和现状可见，学习困境或者在有些方面也可以视为学习困难，其可能是许多因素交互作用的结果。存在学习困境的学生有一半以上都没有生理原因，并且他们的智力水平基本正常，但他们往往在学习的某些方面有着认知能力严重不足的现象，一般是在基本的听说、读写和数学、逻辑思维等方面的能力不足。此外，有些研究中还提到学生存在情绪、行为方面的问题，因而导致学习成绩差，这也是学习困境学生最典型，也是最显著的表现，我国也称这部分群体为“差生”。
关键词：学校； 学校社会工作； 学习环境；学习困境
柯克与葛拉格于 1983年在《非弱智学习困境学生的成因分析》一文中提出了关于学习困境的新近说法，其概念内容为：学习困境是在语言或知觉、认知或动作行为等方面存在心理亦或神经上的异常状况，该状况主要表现为三个方面：第一，某些特定的行为与成就之间的悬殊或是学生潜在的已知能力与学生学习成绩之间的差距；第二，学生自身独特的学习性质与接受知识和掌握知识的程度，导致学生无法从大多数学生所能接受的教材与教法中开展学习，而是需要一些特定的方法以获得发展；第三，学生的这种学习异常现象，并非因为其严重的智能不足或是感官障碍所主导。从学习困境的研究历史和现状可见，学习困境或者在有些方面也可以视为学习困难，其可能是许多因素交互作用的结果。存在学习困境的学生有一半以上都没有生理原因，并且他们的智力水平基本正常，但他们往往在学习的某些方面有着认知能力严重不足的现象，一般是在基本的听说、读写和数学、逻辑思维等方面的能力不足。此外，有些研究中还提到学生存在情绪、行为方面的问题，因而导致学习成绩差，这也是学习困境学生最典型，也是最显著的表现，我国也称这部分群体为“差生”。
由于国情不同，西方文献中并没有“民族社会工作”这一说法。在美国社会工作专家查尔斯．H．扎斯特罗(Charles H．Astros)所著的《社会工作与社会福利导论》(第七版)中，有一章内容谈到了美国的社会工作与美国的少数民族问题，其着眼于美国种族主义的社会现实，提出了“民族敏感的社会工作实务(ethnic—sensitive social work practice)”这一概念，民族敏感实践寻求把各种民族文化和少数人群体之间的理解融合到一起形成指导社会工作的理论和原则这种实践的依据是这样一种观点，即民族敏感的社会工作实务建立在对案主所拥有的多元化的民族身份的理解的基础上，努力把对不同民族文化和少数民族群体的理解与那些指导社会工作实务的原理和理论结合在一起，以案主所属的民族群体身份和社会阶级地位相关的价值和地位为导向。在其所著的另外一本《社会工作实务—应用与提高》(第七版)中，有一章的内容涉及到了多元群体的社会工作实务，其中提到了社会工作者在为不同群体的案主进行服务时存在的问题和障碍，以及跨文化工作所需要的知识，比如自我的知识，差异的知识以及一些运用知识的干预技巧。当然，还有一些外文书籍中提到了民族敏感的社会工作实务以及多元群体的社会工作实务。从某种程度上来说，美国关于少数民族社会工作的研究已相当成熟。
虽然学校的心理健康专业人员显然必须直接向学生提供心理健康服务，但越来越多的文献为这些专业人员确定了授权的作用，他们将教师作为主要服务提供者。本研究的目的是确定在协同环境中，学校社会工作者的亚型，并确定个体和情境的分类以及合作整体水平的因素。潜在类别分析，利用收集的全国学校社会工作2008部分进行调查数据（N = 1639），以研究学校社会工作从业人员与协作的做法基本类型和研究协作实践的预测。学校社会工作者四大类进行鉴定，包括（1）noncollaborators，（2）系统级的专家、顾问，和（3）（4）均衡的合作者。这些类与多所学校担任，相关年级、教育和临床执业状况；行政责任的水平是不相关的类成员。而学校社会工作者协作的做法不同，存在机会加强教育和支持教师作为主要供应商与社会、心理健康的学生他们的角色和行为需求。讨论了对基于学校的心理健康提供者、教师、管理者、决策者和研究人员的影响。
了解环境中已有的社会关系对健康促进至关重要，这不仅是为了了解重要的人在干预中“站到一边”，而且是为了了解干预本身如何改变社会结构。社会网络分析是一种获取社会关系复杂性的方法，但在健康促进研究中尚未得到广泛应用。我们在一所中学提出了一个应用程序的结果。我们从关系的密度和特定工作人员和教师的中心性来描述学校。我们举例说明，如何简单地成为知名人士或被其他人提名为一个要求助的人（在一个人的程度中心得分中反映的概念）并不总是最佳的指导，由谁来选择作为干预冠军。事实上，许多干预措施，一个人的战略连接在社会的边缘人，学校或工作场所可能是最重要的标准（一个概念更好地反映一个人的中介中心性评分）。考虑到调查管理的方便性和分析洞察力的高收益率，我们建议社会网络分析更经常地用于健康促进干预设计和评估。
对数学学习障碍学生的流行引发了发展中的这群学生需要了解特殊教育的研究者和实践者之间的利益，并确定有效的教学程序培养在校期间年到成年，他们的数学成绩。对数学学习困难学生的特点从不同的角度进行了研究，包括发展、神经学和神经心理学以及教育学。这种多样性有助于我们更广泛地了解学生的学习需要和困难。特殊教育评估实践，包括各种各样的方法，包括常模参照、参考的依据，而非标准化的程序，根据特定的评估问题专业人士寻求答案。必须检查学生的数学知识和概念理解，以确定他们的长处和短处，基于课程的进展，以及使用认知策略来得出数学解决方案。研究结果已确定经验验证的干预措施，以数学课程的数学学习困难的学生。研究活动以行为理论和认知心理学为基础，对建构主义方法产生了浓厚的兴趣。尽管研究主要集中在计算性能上，但在解决故事问题和技术方面仍在做更多的工作。这些领域以及其他数学课程技能需要进一步研究。此外，成人数学LD的需求促使教育工作者检查小学和中学数学课程，并决定如何给他们注入生活技能教学。随着数学专业教育的不断发展，特殊教育工作者必须认识到数学教育的发展和影响。自1950年代以来，改革努力显著地改变了这一领域，促进了数学教科书中的课程和高等教育课程中的教学实践。数学教育家继续寻求更好的理解儿童如何学习数学；这个过程是由流行的理论取向和研究方法所决定的。这个特殊的数学特别教育系列为读者提供了关于数学学习障碍学生的特点、评估程序、数学规划、教师准备以及该领域未来的发展方向的信息。该系列是由于Lee Wiederholt博士和Judith K. Voress博士讨论，谁看到一个数学中的特殊教育研究和最佳实践的编制需要。我感谢他们对本系列发展的支持和周到的见解。我也很感谢George Hynd博士和他的助理编辑，凯瑟琳黑人的支持，在敲定细节公布。最后，我非常感谢作者对这一系列的贡献；他们的工作继续显著地影响数学特别教育和数学学习困难学生的发展。
社会支持作为一种积极影响青少年适应的变量而被广泛研究，在青年学生的生活中往往不那么容易受到学校失败的威胁。本研究探讨高危学生的社会支持，包括世卫组织提供的八种支持类型，以及特定类型的社会支持对学校绩效结果的影响。对参加社区学校项目的学生数据分析的结果，指出父母和成人照顾者是为初中和高中的高危学生社会支持的主要来源。对学校结果数据的分析表明，特定类型的社会支持与不同的理想学校结果有关。本文介绍了社会工作实践的含义和发展干预策略，以提高学生的学校表现和行为
本研究探讨青少年学校社群感的个体与学校层面的预测因子。分层线性模型被用来研究个体之间的关系（人口、控制和监测由父母和学校民主氛围的感知），类，和学校特色（意味着民主的学校氛围、人口统计、活动、学校规模、学校的，公共/私人治理设施）和学生在学校社区感。数据采用基于4092个10能级模型嵌套在248到18岁的学生（三年级在类分析：第六，第八，和第十年级的水平，在平均年龄为11, 13，和15，分别）在意大利东北部的威内托大区地区的134所学校。个人和情境的衡量一个民主学校的气候，同时在个人，班级和学校水平的看法，是学校的社区意识的显着预测因子。更多的家长监测和更少的父母控制也预测在个人层面上。学校层面SES预测学校之间的变化在社区意识，控制个别学生SES和其他学生和学校水平的预测。学校规模、设施（物理空间资源），水平的学校与社区互动关系，公共或私人治理，并提供的课外活动都是无意义的。这项研究表明，在学生、班级和学校层次上，学校的社区意识有着显著的变化，这在民主学校实践中起着重要的作用，例如学生参与制定规则和组织活动、表达自由以及在确定这一变量时遵守规则和教师的公平性。
外文文献出处：Donald D, Hammill. A Brief Look at the Learning Disabilities Movement in the United States[M], Journal of Learning Disabilities,1993.
附外文文献原文
The prevalence of students with mathematics learning disabilities has triggered an interest among special education researchers and practitioners in developing an understanding of the needs of this group of students, and in identifying effective instructional programming to foster their mathematical performance during the school years and into adulthood. Research into the characteristics of students with mathematics learning disabilities is being approached from different perspectives, including developmental, neurological and neuropsychological, and educational. This diversity helps us develop a broader understanding of students learning needs and difficulties. Special education assessment practices encompass a variety of approaches, including norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, and nonstandardized procedures, depending on the specific assessment questions professionals seek to answer. Students mathematical knowledge and conceptual understanding must be examined to determine their strengths and weaknesses, curriculum-based progress, and use of cognitive strategies to arrive at mathematical solutions. Research findings have identified empirically validated interventions for teaching mathematics curricula to students with mathematics learning disabilities. Research studies have been grounded in behavioral theory and cognitive psychology, with an emergent interest in the constructivist approach. Although research studies have focused primarily on computational performance, more work is being conducted in the areas of story-problem solving and technology. These areas as well as other math curricular skills require further study. Additionally, the needs of adults with math LD have spurred educators to examine the elementary and secondary math curricula and determine ways to infuse them with life skills instruction accordingly. As the field of mathematics special education continues to evolve, special educators must remain cognizant of the developments in and influences on the field of mathematics education. Reform efforts have shaped the field sign
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外文文献出处：Donald D, Hammill. A Brief Look at the Learning Disabilities Movement in the United States[M], Journal of Learning Disabilities,1993.
附外文文献原文
The prevalence of students with mathematics learning disabilities has triggered an interest among special education researchers and practitioners in developing an understanding of the needs of this group of students, and in identifying effective instructional programming to foster their mathematical performance during the school years and into adulthood. Research into the characteristics of students with mathematics learning disabilities is being approached from different perspectives, including developmental, neurological and neuropsychological, and educational. This diversity helps us develop a broader understanding of students learning needs and difficulties. Special education assessment practices encompass a variety of approaches, including norm-referenced, criterion-referenced, and nonstandardized procedures, depending on the specific assessment questions professionals seek to answer. Students mathematical knowledge and conceptual understanding must be examined to determine their strengths and weaknesses, curriculum-based progress, and use of cognitive strategies to arrive at mathematical solutions. Research findings have identified empirically validated interventions for teaching mathematics curricula to students with mathematics learning disabilities. Research studies have been grounded in behavioral theory and cognitive psychology, with an emergent interest in the constructivist approach. Although research studies have focused primarily on computational performance, more work is being conducted in the areas of story-problem solving and technology. These areas as well as other math curricular skills require further study. Additionally, the needs of adults with math LD have spurred educators to examine the elementary and secondary math curricula and determine ways to infuse them with life skills instruction accordingly. As the field of mathematics special education continues to evolve, special educators must remain cognizant of the developments in and influences on the field of mathematics education. Reform efforts have shaped the field significantly since the 1950s, contributing to the curriculum offered in mathematics textbooks and the pedagogical practices taught in higher education courses. Mathematics educators continue to search for a better understanding of how children learn mathematics; this process is shaped by the prevailing theoretical orientations and research methodologies. This special series in mathematics special education provides readers with information about the characteristics of students with mathematics learning disabilities, assessment procedures, mathematics programming, teacher preparation, and future directions for the field. The series originated as a result of discussions with Dr. Lee Wiederholt and Dr. Judith K. Voress, who saw a need for the compilation of recent research and best practices in mathematics special education. I thank them for their support of and thoughtful insights about the development of this series. I also appreciate the support of Dr. George Hynd and his editorial assistant, Kathryn Black, in finalizing the details for publication. Finally, I am most appreciative of the authors contributions to this series; their work continues to significantly influence the development of the field of mathematics special education and programming for students with mathematics learning disabilities.
The authors begin this article by highlighting clinical social casework as a historic trend in school social work practice. They then identify two major shifts in current education policy related to school social work practice. One shift is an emphasis on a multilevel intervention approach, and the other is the differentiation between academic and behavioral forms of intervention. Next, they juxtapose the shifts in current policy aimed at school social work practice with national studies of school social work tasks. On the basis of their analysis of current literature and national studies, and the results of a survey on school social work tasks in Iowa, they conclude that school social work policy is experiencing a shift toward multilevel systems of intervention, such as response to intervention, whereas school social work practice continues to follow a traditional clinical model of social casework. The current division between policy and practice is an open door to a period of clarification. Professionals in the field and scholars in higher education need to continue working in concert to ensure clarity and the establishment of a model of school social work practice that is effective and grounded in social work theory.
While school-based mental health professionals obviously must provide mental health services to students directly, the literature is increasingly identifying an empowerment role for these professionals, whereby they support teachers as primary service providers. The purpose of this study was to identify subtypes of school social workers within the context of collaborative practice, and to identify individual and contextual factors associated with these classifications as well as overall levels of collaboration.;;Latent class analysis, conducted using data collected as part of the National School Social Work Survey 2008 (N = 1639), was employed to examine underlying subtypes of school social work practitioners in relation to collaborative practices and to examine predictors of collaborative practice.;;Four broad categories of school social workers were identified, including (1) noncollaborators, (2) system-level specialists, (3) consultants, and (4) well-balanced collaborators. These classes were associated with the number of schools served, grade level, education, and clinical licensure status; level of administrative responsibility was not associated with clas
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